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Aim and Background: The purpose of this study was to compare executive function and sustained attention in students with obsessive&ndash;compulsive, high schizotypal and overlapping symptoms and a control group. Methods and Materials: The present study assessed undergraduate students of Tabriz University by ex post facto method. Randomized multi-stage cluster sampling was used to select 1570 students. The subjects completed Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire and the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised. Then, during the screening phase, 140 students (in groups of 35) were selected. They completed Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Continuous Performance Test and Stroop color-word test. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA test. Findings: The results of this study showed a significant difference in executive function and sustained attention between high schizotypy and overlapping groups and the control group (P < 0.05). Except for commission errors in CPT, other differences observed between obsessive-compulsive and control groups in executive function and sustained attention except were insignificant (P > 0.05). Conclusions: The difference between the overlapping group and obsessive-compulsive and high schizotypy groups in terms of executive function and sustained attention pattern may indicate the unique clinical characteristics of the overlapping group.

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Aim and Background: The present study aimed to investigate the efficacy of executive functions training (response inhibition) on the attention of preschool children with developmental coordination disorder in Isfahan city, Iran. Methods and Materials: The study population consisted of all the preschool children (5-6 years old) with developmental coordination disorder. Purposive sampling method was used. The subjects were three preschool children who had a diagnosis of developmental coordination disorder symptoms. Data collection tools included: (NEPSY neuropsychology test) neuropsychology test, Conner&rsquo;s parent rating scale, Wechsler intelligence scale for children, basic motor ability tests and clinical interview. A single-subject method with multiple baseline design (MBD) research methodology was used too. The intervention started right after the baseline condition and 10 individual sessions of response inhibition executive functions training was given to them afterwards. Findings: The results of the data chart analysis based on descriptive statistics and visual analysis indices revealed that the intervention was effective on the three participants (respectively PND 100%, 90% and 70% for test number one, two and three). Conclusions: The results of the present study showed that by response inhibition executive functions training, the rate of attention deficit can be reduced and the rate of academic performance can be improved.

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Aim and Background: Chronic use of opiates has been associated with a wide range of cognitive deficits, involving domains of attention, inhibitory control, planning, decision-making, and memory. Therefore, the main aim of this research was the comparison of executive functions in heroin dependents and patients on methadone therapy with a control group. Method and Materials: The retrospective research method was used in the current study. Purposeful sampling method was used in methadone and heroin groups, but control group participants were selected randomly. Statistical population in this study consisted of heroin dependents and methadone users, in Isfahan city in 2012, who had been referred to medial, rehabilitation centers, and psychiatric clinics. Finally, 75 patients were selected in three groups [methadone (n = 25), heroin (n = 25), and control groups (n = 25)] according to the criteria of drug abuse or dependence in DSM-IV-TR. Then, they were evaluated based on the Tower of London and Stroop neuropsychological Tests. Findings: Results of analysis of variance show that the control group had a better performance in the Tower of London and Stroop tests in comparison with heroin dependents and methadone users groups (P &le; 0.05). However, there were no significant differences between heroin dependents and methadone users groups. &nbsp; Conclusions: Heroin dependency and methadone use, probably, causes prefrontal cortex and executive dysfunctions, and neurological disturbances in frontostriatal systems. According to these findings, we can design professional cognitive rehabilitation programs to rehabilitate patients in their personal, occupational, and social life.

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Aim and Background: Executive functions are the most important factors that influence students&rsquo; mathematics disorders. With the technological advances in the field of education it is possible to use a computer training program to evaluate and treat this disorder. Method and Materials: In this quasi-experimental research we selected 10 female elementary students of learning disorder centers in Tehran with mathematics disorder, and 10 normal students. The two groups were matched in age and intelligence. We tested all of the students with Key Math and executive functions tests. Students with mathematics disorders received the working memory training for 20 sessions in 7 weeks. Samples of these researches were retested using executive functions test. In order to compare the executive functions in students with and without mathematic disorders Student&rsquo;s t-test was used to analyse data. Findings: &nbsp; There were differences between executive functions in students with and without mathematics disorder. Moreover, working memory training had a significant effect on the executive function of students with mathematics disorder. There were more significant difference in average in the math disorder group in comparison to the control group. In addition, there was a significant difference in effect of executive functions pre- and post-intervention, and in follow-up. Conclusions: The results of the current study showed that the working memory computer assisted program caused improvements in executive functions of students with mathematics disorders.

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Aim and Background: Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system in which primary symptoms emerges in adults between the age 20 and 40 years old. Previous findings indicate 15-20 percent of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patients are diagnosed with executive function impairments. The purpose of this study is to evaluate planning function as one of executive functions subsets in patients with relapsing-remitting MS.   Method and Materials: In this ex-post facto study which is done in Esfahan MS association, 49 female with relapsing-remitting MS and 43 female age-, education- and IQ-matched without MS were selected by haphazard sampling. To assess their planning function, both groups were tested using Tower of Hanoi task. Findings: Multivariate analysis of variance shows significant difference between to group in three, four, five, six and seven movement tasks(p<0/ 001). Additionally, patient group has more extra moves (errors) than observe, considering that there was no limitation in time. To measure the sensitivity and specificity of different tasks of Tower of Hanoi task, ROC curve is applied. All curves were located above the reference line. Conclusions: Findings indicate patients with MS had impairment in planning function which is not caused by deficit in their general IQ. Also results showed that six and seven movement tasks of the Tower of Hanoi have higher sensitivity and specificity for assessing planning function.

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Aim and Back ground: Impulsivity and risky decision making is a core element of plenty of individual and social deficits. On the other hand, history of attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity has been reported in many people with these problem particularly addiction. Decision making requires basic cognition function such as inhibition, working memory and attention. The aim of the current study was to explore the relationship between risky decision making with attention functions, work memory and Inhibitory control. Methods and Materials: In present cross sectional study, 215 students of Shahid Beheshti University were evaluated with neuropsychological tests such as N- back, Stroop test, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Continuous Performance Test and Go/NoGo Test. Pearson correlation was used for analysis. Finding: Findings not found any significant correlation between sustain, selective and shifting attention and risky decision making (P> 0.05). Significant correlation found between inhibitory control and risky decision making (P< 0.01). Conclusions: Different anatomic origin of decision making (ventromedial prefrontal) and executive function (dorsolateral prefrontal) could be considered as a resign of their independence. Inhibitory control is a good predictor of risky decision making and interventional study may be propose training of inhibitory control for reducing risky decision making.

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Aim and Background: Cognitive malfunctions are of the basic characteristics of children with learning disabilities (LD ). The present study examined the effectiveness of a cognitive enabling program on the executive functions (working memory, comprehension, and attention) of 3 rd to 5 th grade primary school students with learning disabilities. Methods and Materials: Research design was quasi-experimental with pretest, posttest and a control group. Research population comprised all the 3 rd to 5 th grade students with learning disabilities in the public schools in Tehran city, Iran, in the academic year of 2015-2016. 20 students were selected using purposive sampling method and were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Experimental group had 10 cognitive enabling sessions, while control group continued with their academic routines. Continuous Performance Test (CPT), N-Back test, and Wechsler comprehension subscale were used as the pre- and posttests to assess attention, working memory, and comprehension for both the groups. Data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential (multivariate ANCOVA) statistics. Findings: Cognitive enabling program improved working memory and comprehension (P < 0.05), and attention level (P < 0.01) in experimental group; although it was more influential on students’ attention. Conclusions: It is concluded that design and use of such cognitive enabling interventions is beneficial for learning and academic enhancement of students with learning disabilities.

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Aim and Background: The purpose of this research was to investigate the effectiveness of executive functions training on the enhancement of attention, working memory, and inhibition in third-grade pupils with borderline intellectual functioning. Methods and Materials: The present research was a quasi-experimental study with pretest, posttest, follow-up, and control group. The educational package included 10 educational computer games and 10 pencil-paper games. In order to investigate the effectiveness of the training package, 34 third-grade pupils with borderline intellectual functioning were selected from elementary schools through combined sampling method and were randomly divided into two experimental (n = 18) and control (n = 16) groups. The experimental group received 20 sessions (70 minutes each) of training. The data collected through Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM), d2, Stroop test, Cornoldy Working Memory Test, and Digit Span test were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. Findings: The results showed that executive function training significantly improved attention and working memory of students with borderline intellectual functioning. This training had the greatest impact on verbal and visual working memory, reduced errors, and increased concentration performance in the d2 test. It only had a significant effect on reaction time in the Stroop test. In addition, it was not effective on increasing total efficiency in the d2 test that is indicative of subjects’ speed. Conclusions: The results of this study confirmed the overall effectiveness of executive functions training on enhancement of attention, working memory, and inhibition in students with borderline intellectual functioning.

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Aim and Background: The deficits of executive functions, as higher cognitive functions, are of the main criteria of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The disorder tends to disrupt in behavior learning and academic performance. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the curriculum of executive functions based on the Anderson’s executive control model on learning behaviors and academic performance among the students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Methods and Materials: This was a semi-experimental study with pre-posttest design with two experimental and control groups. The target population of this research was the total of students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among all sixth grade elementary schools in district 15 of Tehran City, Iran. 30 students were selected using random sampling, and divided into two groups of experimental and control. The experimental group received ten working sessions of curriculum of executive functions based on the Anderson’s model. The used tools were Conners Teacher Questionnaire, Dortaj Academic Performance Questionnaire, and McDermott Learning Behaviors Scale (LBS). Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance method. Findings: The curriculum of executive functions based on the Anderson’s model effectively increased self-efficacy, emotional effects, planning, and lack of control of the outcomes of educational performance (P < 0.001 for all). In addition, it significantly increased motivation of competency, attitude toward learning, persistence/attention, and the flexibility strategy of learning behaviors (P < 0.001 for all). Conclusions: The curriculum of executive functions based on the Anderson’s executive control model has an impact on improving the learning behaviors and academic performance among the students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

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Aim and Background : The cognitive damage caused by breast cancer can have detrimental effects on the quality of life, occupational and social performance of these patients. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of a cognitive rehabilitation on executive functions and self-care behaviors in patients with breast cancer. Materials and Methods : In an experimental study with pre-test, post-test and control group, 41 patients with breast cancer were selected by convenient sampling method and randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group underwent two months treatment and the scores of the Self-care behaviors questionnaire, Tower of London test (TOL) and Stroop Test (ST). were gathered in both groups before and after the intervention and in one month follow up period. The data were analyzed by the statistical test of mixed analysis of variance. Results : The results in the post-test and follow-up stages showed that there is a significant difference between the two experimental and control groups, in terms executive function (P <0.05 and self-care behaviors (P <0.05). This means that the experimental group who underwent the intervention program had a significant improvement in the post-test phase in the variables mentioned above, and the changes made during the follow-up phase were also stable. Conclusions : The results of this study indicate the effectiveness of a designed cognitive rehabilitation program on executive functions and self-care behaviors of patients with breast cancer; therefore, considering these findings and the mechanism, the effectiveness of this treatment method can have appropriate therapeutic effects on reducing cognitive and psychological problems and improving the quality of life of patients with brest cancer.

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Aim and Background: Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder causes significant impairment in social, educational, occupational and motor abilities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of motor skills training on executive functions in children with attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder.
Methods and Materials: The present study was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest and posttest design with a control group. The statistical population of this study included all male sixth grade elementary school students in Kerman in the academic year 2009-2010; The study sample consisted of 30 people who were selected by available sampling method and were randomly divided into two experimental groups (15 people) and control (15 people). Subjects in two stages of pre-test and post-test were Swanson and Nolan Pelham (1980) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Questionnaires, Wechsler IQ (2002) Numerical Memory and Similarities Subcommittee, and Andrehori Complex Imaging Test. (1942) responded. The experimental group received motor skills training as a group during 18 sessions of 45 minutes, while the control group did not receive any training. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and univariate and multivariate analysis of covariance and SPSS software version 25.
Findings: The results of comparison of the experimental group with the control group showed that the executive functions of working memory and programming-organizing of the experimental group were significantly increased compared to the control group. And the effectiveness of motor skills training on executive functions in the post-test neighborhood was confirmed (p <0.01). The magnitude of this effect on the executive function of working memory was 0.64 and planning-organizing was 0.69(p <.01).
Conclusions: In general, the results showed the effect of motor skills training on executive functions in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. And this method can be used to treat these children.

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Aim and Background: So far, several therapeutic approaches, both pharmacological and non-pharmacological, have been used for patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and researchers are trying to determine the effectiveness of each of these approaches. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of drug therapy, neural feedback and integrated psychological interventions (parent education, play therapy and cognitive education) on behavioral problems of ADHD.
Methods and Materials: The research method was quasi-experimental and the pre-test-post-test-follow-up and control group design. The statistical population included all children aged 9 to 12 years in Hamedan. Sampling method was Purposive. The psychotherapy group received medication daily for 12 weeks. The neural feedback group received 24 sessions of 45 minutes twice a week. The group of integrated psychological interventions received training for 24 sessions. Participants were assessed using the Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Fourth Edition Scale to assess the clinical signs of ADHD, the College Neuropsychological Test to measure executive function, and the Rutter form Behavioral Problems Self-Report Scale. Multivariate analysis of covariance and multivariate analysis of variance were used to analyze the data.
Findings: The results showed that combined psychological interventions were more effective in the behavioral problems variable and all its components compared to drug therapy and neurological feedback, which was also significant in the quarterly follow-up (p≤0.001).
Conclusions: It seems that integrated psychological interventions can be an effective and lasting treatment for behavioral problems in children with ADHD and can replace other therapeutic approaches such as medication and neurological feedback.

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Aim and Background: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by demyelinated lesions in the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerve. When myelin is destroyed by plaque formation, nerve fiber conduction is reduced or lost. This phenomenon interrupts the nerve messages sent from the brain and causes the symptoms of the disease. This disease leads to dysfunction of cognitive functions. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between sensory processing sensitivity on multiple sclerosis mediated by risk decision making function.
Methods and Materials: The research method is descriptive correlation of structural equation management. The statistical population of the study was all patients with multiple sclerosis referred to the Iranian MS Association, from which 200 people were selected by non-random sampling method with inclusion and exclusion criteria. In order to evaluate the level of sensory processing sensitivity in patients from personal scales with high sensory processing sensitivity, Aaron and Aron (1997) and in order to assess the level of risky decision making and severity of multiple sclerosis in patients, respectively used the IOWA gambling test Damasio, Bashara, Damasio, Anderson (1994), Extensive Disability Status Scale Kurtzke (1983).
Findings: The analysis showed that there were significant correlations between and sensory processing sensitivity with multiple sclerosis and risk full decision making. According to the results of the mediation؛ the effect of sensory processing sensitivity on the multiple sclerosis, was moderated by the risk full decision making (p>0.001).
Conclusions: As a result of structural equation sensory processing sensitivity risk full decision making, and multiple sclerosis according to indicators of fitness is good.

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Aim and Background: Today, children's aggression is one of the most common and one of the important reasons for their referral to psychotherapists. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of story therapy and music therapy on the executive functions of aggressive female students.
Methods and Materials: In this quasi-experimental study, 45 aggressive students were randomly selected from among elementary school female students in Karaj in the academic year 2020-2021 and were randomly divided into two experimental groups and one control group. The research instruments included primary school children aggression questionnaires, Wisconsin test, continuous performance test and Stroop test. The experimental groups underwent story therapy in 11 sessions and music therapy in 8 sessions. Data were analyzed by multivariate analysis of covariance.
Findings: There was a significant difference between the effectiveness of story therapy and music therapy on executive functions (p <0.001) of aggressive female students. The mean scores of executive functions in the post-test of music therapy were significantly higher than the mean scores of the story therapy group and the control group (p <0.001).
Conclusions: Story therapy and music therapy have an effective role in improving the executive functions of aggressive female students. Also, music therapy has a greater effect on increasing performance indicators (cognitive flexibility, sustained attention and inhibition) of aggressive female students than story therapy. Therefore, it is suggested that these treatments be performed by specialists in these fields to help aggressive students in educational and therapeutic environments. The results of this research can have many educational implications.

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Aim and Background: Research has shown that energy depletion in children with ADHD can have good results on daily functioning. Therefore, the aim of this study was to the Effectiveness Floor Time Play Therapy on Emotion Management, Self-Control, and Executive Functions in Students with ADHD.
Methods and Materials: The method of the present study is a quasi-experimental type of pre-test-post-test-multi-group follow-up plans with a control group. Counseling centers in Arak, 24 subjects were selected by purposive sampling method and considering the criteria for entry and exit to the research and were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, both research groups at the beginning of the intervention (Floor Time play therapy), Completion of the intervention and two months after the end of treatment were evaluated. Research instruments included the Child Emotion Management Skills Questionnaire Ziman et al. (2001), the Perceived Self-Control Questionnaire Humphrey Children (2000) and Children and Adolescents Executive Performance Scale Barclay (2012). Data were evaluated using repeated measures analysis of variance.
Findings: The results showed that Floor Time play therapy had a significant effect on emotion management, behavior control and executive functions (P≤0.001).
Conclusions: It seems that Floor Time play therapy can be considered as an effective intervention to improve executive functions, control behavior and emotion management in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

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Aim and Background: Studies have shown that academic anxiety is affected by various factors, so the purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between academic anxiety and executive functions and academic engagement.
Methods and Materials: The method of the present study was descriptive-correlational and the statistical population of the present study is high school students in Hamadan, which was selected using a multi-stage cluster method and Cochran's table of 400 people. Were. The research instruments included the Ahvaz Anxiety Scale Questionnaire, the Pintroch Academic Conflict Scale Questionnaire and the Kolich Executive Function Questionnaire.
Findings: The results showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between academic anxiety with deficits in executive functions and a significant negative relationship between academic anxiety and academic involvement.
Conclusions: It seems that executive functions and academic engagement can be useful in predicting academic anxiety. In this regard, in order to increase the external credibility of the research, it is suggested that more research be done.

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Aim and Background: One of the common problems in physically-motor disabled people is psychological distress, defects in executive function and cognitive flexibility, which causes many negative consequences for these people, so the present study aims to determine the effectiveness of behavioral activation on performance. Executive and cognitive flexibility in physical-motor disabled people with psychological distress was done.
Methods and Materials: The current research was a semi-experimental type with a pre-test and a post-test with a control group. The statistical population included all mild to moderate physical-motor disabilities who had a file in the welfare department of Babol city in 1401. Among them, 30 people were selected by the available sampling method and were replaced randomly and by lottery in two experimental and control groups (15 people in the experimental group and 15 people in the control group). The experimental group received behavioral activation therapy (8 sessions) and one session every week for 90 minutes, and the control group did not receive any intervention during this period. The research questionnaires included Barkley's implementation performance questionnaire (2011), Dennis and Vanderwaal's (2010) cognitive flexibility questionnaire, and Lavibond and Lavibond's (1995) psychological disturbance questionnaire. For data analysis, univariate covariance analysis was used with SPSS version 25 software.
Findings: Our findings can be useful for selecting and designing the most appropriate treatment approach according to the needs of physical-motor disabled people with psychological distress.
Conclusions: According to the findings, it can be stated that investigating the effectiveness of behavioral activation therapy is effective in increasing the executive function and cognitive flexibility of physically-motor disabled people with psychological distress.

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Aim and Background: The present study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of neuropsychological rehabilitation of executive functions on students' memory.
Materials and Methods: This research is semi-experimental using a computerized Wechsler working memory intelligence test prepared and compiled from the Farakhnai subscale of the Wechsler intelligence scale, which was used to measure working memory. The statistical sample consisted of 20 high school students who were randomly selected from high school boys in Varamin in the academic year of 1400-1999 in public high schools in mathematics, experimental and human subjects. The subjects were in two control groups (10 subjects) and the experiment (10 subjects) were randomly replaced.
Findings: Neuropsychological rehabilitation of executive functions is effective in improving students' auditory memory/forward repetition, auditory memory/reverse repetition, visual memory/forward repetition, visual memory/reverse repetition, auditory memory, visual memory, and auditory memory span. Visual memory of students is not effective. Also, there was a statistically significant increase in the average score of all dimensions of working memory from the time before the intervention to the follow-up period, and only in the visual dimension / reverse repetition of the average before the intervention (p≤0.001).  There was no significance between the two means (p≥0.001).
Conclusion: In general, the results show the effectiveness of neuropsychological rehabilitation of executive functions on students' memory